Source: Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol. 23, No. 89 (Oct., 1923), pp. 39-43
THE above title may at first sight appear somewhat puzzling, as it is scarcely obvious how the tsetse fly can in any way affect the morals of the tribes living in the areas where it exists. There is nevertheless quite a definite connection between the two, and an investigation of the subject provides not only an interesting illustration of the modification of tribal customs by local conditions, but also of the working of the dowry system generally prevalent among the Bantu.
The area with which this article deals is the southern portion of Tanganyika territory lying along the international boundary of the Ruvuma River, and stretching westward towards Lake Nyasa. This area is at present largely inhabited by a branch of the great Yao tribe who represent the north-easterly section, while the kindred branch in Portuguese territory are the easterly section, the great body of the tribe living further west in British territory.
There seems, however, reason to suppose that these northeasterly Yao entered what is now Tanganyika territory within comparatively recent times, that is to say, within the last one or two hundred years. They still maintain a close connection with their brethren to the south and west, speaking the same language and having the same customs and traditions, and even recognising the local authority of the various chiefs of the different branches. The movement indeed is still continuing and there is a marked tendency for the Yao in Portuguese territory to migrate northward to join their fellows in Tanganyika. The area in question is sparsely populated and contains numerous fertile patches, so that some migratory movement is only to be expected from the more densely inhabited area in the west.
Among these Yao, however, there is a considerable body of even more recent immigrants, the Angoni. Originally an offshoot of the Zulu, these people represent one of the last of the northern outposts where these great raiders established themselves. Formerly maintaining their position by plunder and warfare, the Angoni have gradually settled down as agriculturists, until now under white administration, they have become peaceful and prosperous, living on terms of amity with their Yao neighbours, although still holding themselves largely
aloof from them in language and customs.
On first contact with the two peoples in this area the observer cannot help being struck by the extent to which old and salutary tribal customs and observances have broken down, particularly in the matter of the status of women and the condition of tribal morals. Whereas the main body of the Yao may be regarded as intelligent and progressive people with a considerable measure of self-respect and tribal organisation, the north-eastern branch are apathetic and degraded, regarding the disappearance of their ancient customs with a kind of
cynical indifference.
The Angoni again, though possessing a far higher standard in character and morals, have nevertheless sunk much below the level that might have been expected from any branch of the virile and well-organised Zulu. It is equally puzzling and disappointing to find such a state of affairs, and at first sight one might be inclined to accept as an explanation the fact that this area was under German rule. On investigation, however, I am inclined to believe that the mischief must be attributed in this case, at any rate, to other sources than Prussian government, and this influence may plausibly be traced to the tsetse fly, which is prevalent to a terrible degree throughout the area in question.
Considering first the conditions under which these people first arrived in the country which they now inhabit, one may suppose them to have been to a great extent pastoral and nomadic. Thrust up to the north and east by pressure from behind, they wandered on with their herds attracted by the rolling grassy plains with their fine pasturage, and without realising the sinister threat to their herds which existed in the biting flies not met with in true pastoral country. Gradually their animals died off, the plague doubtless being spread by the provision of fresh material, so that increasing poverty drove the wanderers to settle down more and more as agriculturists rather than as pastoralists, until we find them in their present position practically without livestock and dependent entirely upon their not very skilful or energetic agriculture.
In the case of the Angoni the raiding parties no doubt pushed on in their search for their one object, the easy plunder of pastoral people, and without realising the changed conditions of the country which they were entering they pressed forward until they found themselves in a land where their chief interest in life, cattle, could not exist. The price of residence, therefore, was the abandonment of their life as cattle-raiders and their
adoption of agriculture, and this probably largely explains the limitations of the Angoni penetration. Many of the more conservative no doubt turned back from a country which lacked the main attraction for them, others more adaptable resigned themselves to the new conditions rather than face the difficulties of going back to re-establish themselves among their stronger brethren behind, and settled down like the Yao before them to till the land. Indeed it may very well be the truth to say that the tsetse fly represented the great barrier against the invasions of the Zulu kindred.
Such a radical change in the habits of the people, more drastic than any that any administration has ever dared to attempt, was bound to have far-reaching effects upon native custom. The slightest knowledge of the enormous part played by stock in all social relations among pastoral tribes will suggest the profound modifications necessary for pastoralists becoming agriculturists. Particularly is this the case in all matters connected with the payment of dowry, which plays a dominating part in native marriage customs. Old tribal law demanded that the prospective bridegroom should pay over so many head of cattle to his wife's relatives, to be held as security for proper behaviour by both parties. Appearing at first sight to be merely the payment for a chattel, the dowry system will be found on investigation to have far higher and more valuable functions. In the case of unfaithfulness on the part of the wife it enabled the wronged husband to demand the support of
his wife's relations, or in default, the return of the dowry; while should the wife have cause of complaint against her husband, tribal law might sanction her return home, the husband losing both wife and stock. In the case of an unmarried girl, again, the dowry system tended to make parents solicitous of their daughter's good behaviour in order to maintain her value in the marriage market.
What then happens when all these salutary safeguards disappeared with the live-stock on which they were based? The bridegroom could no longer offer the security for the good treatment of his wife, the parents had no more any reason for hoping that their daughter would prove a faithful spouse, while unmarried girls lost their value as a potential source of wealth, with the result that there was no longer any incentive for their relations to supervise their behaviour.
At first an effort seems to have been made to replace the old cattle payments by some other form of due. The young man was expected to put in a specified amount of work in his father-in-law's fields, or to pay a quantity of grain or other produce. This substitute, however, in no way satisfied the original requirements. Always difficult of assessment and collection, it had, even when paid, none of the lasting qualities of a definite small herd of cattle. It did not add to the permanent wealth of the bride's family as did the productive cattle, and it scarcely admitted of return in the case of divorce. The result was that the main incentive to morality established by old tribal law practically disappeared. The Angoni, being much later. arrivals, and therefore faced with the problem in more recent years, have made a better and more definite attempt to substitute payment in cash for the old cattle payment, since currency of some sort was beginning to appear soon after the time of their arrival. This arrangement was far better than that of the Yao and did have some beneficial effect, but the rarity of coin and the difficulty with which it could in those days be procured must always have rendered the system an unsatisfactory one.
The result upon the natives concerned has been deplorable. The north-eastern Yao can only be described as cynically careless about the morals of their women. They have even gone to the great length (for a Bantu people) of condoning relations with immature children. Marriage as a tribal institution has very largely broken down, with the worst result on the moral standards of the people and the fertility of the race. The Angoni with their more recent experience of the difficulty and their creditable effort to circumvent it have by no means sunk to the depths reached by the Yao. Their standard is, however, undoubtedly lower than that of former years, and it is to be feared that the degrading effect is likely to continue.
Strenuous administrative efforts have been made to raise the standard of native morals, and these have been supported by missionary influence. Nevertheless, it is difficult to see how the old salutary laws can ever be re-established while the people are entirely lacking in the cattle upon which alone these laws were based. Hope appears to lie only in the gradual raising of the moral standard of the people themselves, and it is to be feared that this will be a lengthy and discouraging task in face of the lack of obvious material benefits to the native. Nevertheless, it is encouraging to note that the elders of the tribes intensely deplore the existing state of affairs, and seem genuinely anxious to return to the better ways of old times.
The whole problem is a melancholy example of the disastrous results attendant upon the sudden breaking down of any important detail of tribal life and custom, though in this case a little satisfaction at any rate may be drawn from the fact that the harm has been done by natural causes rather than maladministration. The difficulty presents a real problem in the development of the peoples concerned.
G. ST. J. ORDE BROWNE.
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